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What Is Islam?

Islam is a monotheistic religion founded by the Prophet Muhammad in 7th-century Arabia. With nearly 1.9 billion followers — about 24% of the global population — it is the world’s second-largest religion and the fastest-growing. The word “Islam” means “submission” (to the will of God), and a Muslim is “one who submits.” The religion centers on the belief in one God (Allah in Arabic) and the teachings revealed through Muhammad, recorded in the Quran.

Core Beliefs

Islam shares its monotheistic foundation with Judaism and Christianity. Muslims regard Abraham, Moses, and Jesus as prophets — but consider Muhammad the final prophet who received God’s complete and uncorrupted message.

Tawhid (oneness of God) is the central theological concept. God is singular, unique, all-powerful, and merciful. There is no intermediary between God and humanity. No saints, no priesthood, no divine incarnation.

The Quran is the holy text, believed to be the literal word of God as revealed to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel over 23 years (610-632 CE). Written in Arabic, it contains 114 chapters (suras) covering theology, law, ethics, and narrative. Muslims consider the Arabic text sacred — translations are considered interpretations, not the Quran itself.

The Hadith are records of Muhammad’s sayings, actions, and approvals. They supplement the Quran and form the basis for much Islamic law and practice. Major hadith collections (Bukhari, Muslim, Abu Dawud) were compiled 150-200 years after Muhammad’s death.

The Five Pillars structure Muslim practice:

1. Shahada — the declaration of faith
2. Salat — five daily prayers performed facing Mecca
3. Zakat — annual charitable giving (2.5% of accumulated wealth)
4. Sawm — fasting from dawn to sunset during the month of Ramadan
5. Hajj — pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime, if able

A Brief History

Muhammad was born around 570 CE in Mecca. At age 40, he reported receiving revelations from God through the angel Gabriel. His message of monotheism and social justice challenged Mecca’s polytheistic establishment. After years of persecution, Muhammad and his followers migrated to Medina in 622 CE — an event called the Hijra that marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar.

In Medina, Muhammad established the first Muslim community, combining religious leadership with political governance. By 630 CE, he returned to Mecca in triumph and unified much of the Arabian Peninsula under Islam. He died in 632 CE.

After Muhammad’s death, Islam expanded with extraordinary speed. Within a century, Muslim empires stretched from Spain to Central Asia. The Umayyad Caliphate (661-750) and Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258) presided over a golden age of science, philosophy, medicine, and art. Scholars preserved and expanded upon Greek, Persian, and Indian knowledge — contributions that later helped spark the European Renaissance.

The Ottoman Empire (1299-1922) was the last major Muslim imperial power, controlling much of the Middle East, North Africa, and southeastern Europe for over 600 years.

Sunni and Shia

The split between Sunni and Shia Islam is the most significant internal division. It originated in a political dispute over succession but developed into distinct theological and jurisprudential traditions.

Sunni Islam (85-90% of Muslims) recognizes the first four caliphs as legitimate successors and emphasizes community consensus. It has four major legal schools (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i, Hanbali), each interpreting Islamic law somewhat differently.

Shia Islam (10-15%) holds that leadership should have passed through Ali’s lineage. The Shia concept of the Imam — a divinely guided leader — differs fundamentally from Sunni political theology. Iran is the largest Shia-majority country. Significant Shia populations exist in Iraq, Bahrain, Lebanon, and Azerbaijan.

Islamic Law (Sharia)

Sharia is a system of religious law derived from the Quran, Hadith, scholarly consensus, and analogical reasoning. It covers personal conduct, family law, commerce, criminal justice, and governance.

How sharia is applied varies enormously. Some Muslim-majority countries (Saudi Arabia, Iran) implement sharia as state law. Others (Turkey, Tunisia) have secular legal systems. Most Muslims worldwide practice sharia as personal religious guidance — governing prayer, diet, fasting, and charitable giving — within the legal frameworks of their respective countries.

The popular Western image of sharia as exclusively harsh criminal punishments is misleading. Criminal law is a small fraction of sharia. The vast majority concerns worship, family matters, business ethics, and personal conduct.

Islam Today

Islam is geographically diverse. The country with the most Muslims is Indonesia (230 million) — which is thousands of miles from the Arab Middle East. India has more Muslims (over 200 million) than most “Muslim countries.” Europe’s Muslim population exceeds 25 million.

The diversity of practice is equally broad. Islam in Senegal looks different from Islam in Saudi Arabia, which looks different from Islam in Indonesia. Cultural context shapes how religious principles are expressed, which is true of every major religion.

Challenges facing the global Muslim community include political instability in several Muslim-majority regions, tensions between traditional and modernist interpretations, Islamophobia in Western countries, and internal debates about governance, women’s rights, and religious authority.

What is often lost in political discussions is that Islam, like all major religions, is primarily practiced by ordinary people trying to live ethical lives, raise families, and find meaning — using a 1,400-year-old tradition as their guide.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the Five Pillars of Islam?

The five core practices every Muslim should observe: Shahada (declaration of faith — 'There is no god but God, and Muhammad is the messenger of God'), Salat (five daily prayers), Zakat (charitable giving of 2.5% of wealth), Sawm (fasting during Ramadan), and Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca at least once if physically and financially able).

What is the difference between Sunni and Shia Islam?

The split originated in a disagreement over succession after Muhammad's death in 632 CE. Sunnis (about 85-90% of Muslims) accepted Abu Bakr as the first caliph. Shia Muslims believed leadership should have passed to Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law. Over centuries, theological, legal, and cultural differences developed. Both groups share core beliefs but differ on authority, jurisprudence, and certain practices.

How many Muslims are there in the world?

Approximately 1.9 billion people identify as Muslim, making Islam the world's second-largest religion (about 24% of the global population). The largest Muslim-majority countries by population are Indonesia (230 million), Pakistan (220 million), Bangladesh (150 million), and Egypt (100 million). Only about 20% of Muslims are Arab.

Further Reading

• Islam – Encyclopaedia Britannica
• Pew Research – Muslims and Islam
• Oxford Islamic Studies Online